Rethinking Society and Freedom: What Anthropology Teaches Us About New Possibilities

Societal organization and freedom are often seen as fixed, but anthropology reveals that human societies have always experimented with diverse ways of living. From egalitarian foraging communities to decentralized governance systems like the Iroquois Confederacy, human history is full of innovative approaches to cooperation, hierarchy, and liberty. Alternative social structures—both past and present—challenge the fundamental assumptions behind modern states and hierarchies by demonstrating that human societies have historically organized themselves in ways that do not fit the rigid frameworks of centralized power, social stratification, or economic inequality often seen today. Modern states are frequently characterized by top-down governance, bureaucratic control, and hierarchies based on wealth, power, and class. Yet, anthropology provides numerous examples of societies that operate outside these structures, questioning the universality and inevitability of such systems.

1. Egalitarian Societies and Decentralized Governance

• Hunter-gatherer societies like the !Kung of southern Africa and the Hadza of Tanzania are well-known examples of egalitarian social structures. These groups lack formal leadership, and decisions are often made collectively, emphasizing social equality, cooperation, and shared resources. Richard B. Lee’s research on the !Kung has shown that social hierarchies are minimal and wealth disparities almost nonexistent because resources are shared communally. These societies challenge the modern assumption that leadership, wealth accumulation, and rigid social hierarchies are necessary for human progress.

• The Iroquois Confederacy in North America offers another historical example of a decentralized political system that worked through consensus rather than hierarchical command. Known for their sophisticated governance model, the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) organized themselves through a system of clan-based councils where decisions were reached through dialogue and agreement, not coercion. This confederacy influenced thinkers like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, showing that alternatives to monarchies and centralized states were not only possible but successful.

2. Anarchist and Stateless Societies

• Zomia, a region in Southeast Asia, is a prime example of stateless societies that have actively resisted the influence of centralized states. As described in James C. Scott’s The Art of Not Being Governed, the various ethnic groups in Zomia have for centuries avoided state control by retreating into the mountains and maintaining forms of social organization that prioritize autonomy and self-governance. These societies show that living outside the control of formal states is possible and that political freedom can be preserved by avoiding centralized governance altogether.

• Modern anarchist movements also question the necessity of the state by advocating for horizontal decision-making and direct democracy. The anarchist communes of the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s, for example, implemented self-governing communities based on collective ownership and non-hierarchical leadership. These movements suggest that societies can function—at least temporarily—without state apparatus or top-down control, offering a vision of political organization based on voluntary cooperation rather than coercion.

3. Indigenous Models of Social Organization

• Indigenous societies often feature non-hierarchical structures that contrast sharply with Western ideas of governance. For instance, many indigenous groups in the Americas, such as the Tupi of Brazil or the Mapuche of Chile, traditionally organized themselves around communal land ownership and social structures that prioritize collective well-being. These models often include an emphasis on harmony with the natural environment, something increasingly important in the context of global ecological crises.

• The indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest, such as the Kwakwaka’wakw and Tlingit, practiced a system of social organization centered around the potlatch, a gift-giving feast that redistributed wealth and reinforced social ties without the need for centralized governance or permanent hierarchies. This system subverts the Western capitalist idea that societies need accumulation of wealth by elites to prosper, instead highlighting reciprocity and communal support as driving social forces.

4. Matriarchal and Gender-Equal Societies

• Anthropologists have also documented societies where power is more equally distributed between genders or where women hold significant social and political power. The Minangkabau of Indonesia, for instance, are a matrilineal society where property and inheritance pass through the female line, and women play key roles in decision-making processes. This contrasts sharply with the patriarchal systems prevalent in much of the world today, challenging the assumption that male dominance is a natural or necessary feature of social organization.

• Other historical examples, such as the Moso people of China, practice a form of social organization where women lead households, and societal organization does not conform to traditional gender roles. These societies suggest that the modern patriarchal structures are not universal and that alternative models of gender equality are not only possible but have been sustainable over time.

5. Challenges to the Assumption of Economic Inequality

• In modern capitalist societies, economic inequality is often viewed as an inevitable result of market dynamics. Yet, alternative economic systems challenge this assumption. The Kuna people of Panama, for example, practice a system of collective land ownership and communal labor, ensuring that wealth and resources are distributed more equitably. In these societies, wealth is not concentrated in the hands of a few, and social status is not based on economic power, demonstrating that human societies can thrive without the stark economic disparities characteristic of modern capitalism.

• Similarly, the Mbuti Pygmies of Central Africa maintain an economy based on shared resources, where individuals are free to take what they need without hoarding or accumulation. This model suggests that the accumulation of private wealth is not a natural human behavior but a consequence of specific social and economic structures.

Conclusion: Rethinking Hierarchy and State Power

By examining these diverse social structures, both past and present, anthropology reveals that modern states and hierarchies are not the inevitable outcome of human evolution. Instead, they are one possible form of organization among many. Egalitarianism, decentralized governance, and alternative economic models show that humans have creatively organized their societies in ways that prioritize cooperation, equality, and freedom. As such, rethinking the assumptions behind modern states and hierarchies allows us to explore new possibilities for organizing our world, inspiring us to consider how we might create societies that are more just, equitable, and free.

 

References:

1. Lee, R. B., & Daly, R. (1999). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers. Cambridge University Press.
2. Scott, J. C. (2009). The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia. Yale University Press.
3. Johansen, B. E. (1982). Forgotten Founders: Benjamin Franklin, the Iroquois, and the Rationale for the American Revolution. Gambit.
4. Sanday, P. R. (2002). Women at the Center: Life in a Modern Matriarchy. Cornell University Press.
5. Graeber, D., & Wengrow, D. (2021). The Dawn of Everything: A New History of Humanity. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.