Teaching Intolerance in Pakistan: An Anthropological Perspective on Education and Identity

Introduction

The 2016 report by the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), titled Teaching Intolerance in Pakistan, reveals systemic religious bias in Pakistani public school textbooks.  From an anthropological standpoint, this issue extends beyond curriculum content, reflecting broader processes of identity formation, cultural reproduction, and state ideology. 

Education as a Tool for Cultural Reproduction

Anthropologists like Pierre Bourdieu have emphasized how educational systems perpetuate societal structures through the transmission of dominant ideologies.  In Pakistan, textbooks often portray non-Muslim citizens as outsiders or threats, reinforcing a singular national identity centered around Islam.  For instance, a 10th-grade Urdu textbook states: 

 "Because the Muslim religion, culture and social system are different from non-Muslims, it is impossible for them to cooperate with Hindus."  

Such narratives marginalize religious minorities, fostering an environment where diversity is viewed with suspicion. 

The Role of Textbooks in Shaping National Identity

Textbooks serve as instruments through which states construct and disseminate national identities.  In Pakistan, the intertwining of religious and national identities in educational materials often leads to the exclusion of minority histories and contributions.  This approach not only distorts historical understanding but also undermines the multicultural fabric of the nation. 

Implications for Minority Communities

The anthropological concept of "othering" explains how dominant groups define themselves in opposition to marginalized groups.  In the Pakistani context, the portrayal of Hindus, Christians, and other minorities as "the other" in educational content contributes to their social exclusion.  This systemic bias can lead to real-world consequences, including discrimination and violence against these communities. 

Pathways to Inclusive Education

Addressing these issues requires a multifaceted approach: 

Curriculum Reform: Incorporate diverse religious and cultural perspectives to reflect Pakistan's pluralistic society. 

Teacher Training: Educate teachers on inclusive pedagogies and the importance of representing all communities fairly. 

Community Engagement: Involve minority communities in the development of educational materials to ensure accurate representation. 

By adopting these measures, Pakistan can move towards an educational system that celebrates diversity and fosters mutual respect among its citizens. 

Further Reading

For those interested in exploring this topic further, the following resources provide in-depth analyses:

• Faith and Feminism in Pakistan by Afiya S. Zia: Examines the intersection of religion, gender, and politics in Pakistan. 
• Mohajir Militancy in Pakistan: Violence and Transformation in the Karachi Conflict: Provides insights into ethnic and political dynamics in Pakistan's largest city. 
• The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft: Offers a comprehensive overview of how religions function within societies. 
• The Anthropology of Education by David Julian Hodges: Discusses the role of education in cultural transmission and socialization. 

Understanding the anthropological dimensions of education in Pakistan sheds light on the deep-rooted challenges faced by religious minorities.  By critically examining and reforming educational content, there is potential to cultivate a more inclusive and harmonious society. 

References

• United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. (2016). Teaching Intolerance in Pakistan: Religious Bias in Public School Textbooks. Retrieved from https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/Teaching%20Intolerance%20in%20Pakistan.pdf
• Dawn News. (2016). Pakistan removed objectionable material from textbooks. Retrieved from https://www.dawn.com/news/1252451
• Wikipedia. (2025). Religious discrimination in Pakistan. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_discrimination_in_Pakistan

Culture and Health: An Ethnographic Perspective on Mental, Animal, and Public Wellbeing

Culture plays a powerful role in shaping how individuals and societies perceive health, illness, and healing. From mental health beliefs to public health practices and our treatment of animals, ethnography—an immersive research method—offers valuable insights into the cultural contexts that shape health-related behaviors and policies.

Ethnography: A Window into Lived Realities

Ethnography, rooted in anthropology, involves long-term participant observation, interviews, and deep immersion in the daily lives of people. It allows researchers to grasp the emic (insider) perspective—understanding health not as a universal experience but as one mediated by local worldviews, values, and social structures.

1. Mental Health: Stigma, Healing, and Cultural Scripts

Mental illness is interpreted differently across cultures. For example, while Western biomedical models tend to frame conditions like depression and schizophrenia in neurochemical terms, other societies often attribute mental distress to spiritual, relational, or moral causes.

Case Example: In Uganda, ethnographic work by researchers like Dr. Catherine Abbo revealed that traditional healers play a central role in treating mental illness, especially when it's perceived as a spiritual affliction. Patients often consult both biomedical clinics and healers—demonstrating a pluralistic approach to care.

Key Insight: Without understanding the cultural logic behind mental health behaviors, public health interventions risk being ineffective or even rejected.

2. Animal Health and Human-Animal Relationships

In many parts of the world, animals are not just livestock or pets—they're kin, spiritual beings, or economic assets. Ethnographic methods help researchers understand how communities view animal health and welfare in cultural terms.

Case Example: Among pastoralist groups like the Maasai in Kenya and Tanzania, cattle are seen as an extension of the self and family. Ethnographic work by Dorothy Hodgson and others has shown how veterinary programs that fail to acknowledge this deep relationship often struggle with uptake.

Key Insight: Viewing animal health only through a biomedical lens neglects the ethical and symbolic meanings animals hold in many societies.

3. Public Health: Trust, Belief, and Local Logic

Public health campaigns often fail not due to scientific flaws but because of cultural dissonance. Ethnographic research helps uncover why communities may distrust vaccines, avoid hospitals, or resist sanitation programs.

Case Example: During the Ebola outbreak in West Africa, anthropologists like Paul Richards documented how burial practices—seen by outsiders as vectors of disease—were deeply sacred to local communities. When health agencies collaborated with local leaders and modified protocols respectfully, compliance increased dramatically.

Key Insight: Public health succeeds when it respects and integrates cultural beliefs rather than dismissing them.

Conclusion: A Call for Culturally Attuned Health Interventions

Health is more than biology—it's a cultural experience. Ethnographic methods reveal the richness and complexity of how people understand and manage health. Whether designing a mental health app, rolling out a vaccination campaign, or improving veterinary services, acknowledging cultural contexts leads to more humane, effective outcomes.

References:

Kleinman, Arthur. The Illness Narratives: Suffering, Healing, and the Human Condition (1988)

Abbo, Catherine. “The Role of Traditional Healers in Mental Health Care in Uganda.” Lancet Psychiatry, 2011.

Hodgson, Dorothy L. Once Intrepid Warriors: Gender, Ethnicity, and the Cultural Politics of Maasai Development (2001)

Richards, Paul. Ebola: How a People's Science Helped End an Epidemic (2016)

Farmer, Paul. Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights, and the New War on the Poor (2003)